Science in Environmental Management

Introduction The research paper will focus on Geo science and the environmental flows that are found in the Murry Darling River in Australia which covers an area of 1.06 million kilometres per square metre. The economic output that is generated from the Murry Darling River is approximately $23 billion in Australian dollars.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Science in Environmental Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More From this amount, $10 billion has been set aside to be used for agricultural purposes. While the use of the Murray River’s resources has been beneficial to the Australian Government, there have been notable ecological and environmental degradation of the river’s resources as a result of pollution and misuse of the river basin1. To deal with the environmental problems facing the Murry River, the Living Murray Initiative was initiated to restore the basin to a clean water resou rce. The initiative involved conducting scientific investigations and analysis by focusing on the increased environmental flows to the river and the benefits that would be derived by recovering the water basin of the river. The composition of the river basin was analysed using scientific methods and the soil, vegetation and plant species were also examined to determine the extent of the degradation in the basin2. The use of science in the initiative therefore played a major role in developing a strategic plan that would be used to manage and coordinate the sustainable use of the river’s water resources as well as other environmental resources in the Murray Darling River Basin. The incorporation of Geo science in the Murry Initiative highlighted the importance of using scientific methods in conducting environmental management techniques to prevent the effects of degradation to the environment. To further understand the concept of Geo Science, a definition is in order. Geo scie nce, which is also referred to as Earth Sciences, deals with all scientific aspects that are related to the composition of the Earth. Geo science involves the study of the atmosphere, air particles, soil composition, water, plant and vegetation and the biosphere. 3Advertising Looking for assessment on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Incorporating Geo Science into the environmental management activities has ensured that the proper strategies and techniques have been used to deal with the ecological issues that arise as a result of environmental degradation. The analysis of the affected natural resources by using geo scientific approaches such as geological engineering, hydro ecology, and ecosystem response models have ensured that appropriate measures are designed to deal with these issues. There are however gaps that have arisen in the use of Geo science and science in managing the environment. These gap s have arisen because of the limited amount of research information that is available on the subject. The studies conducted on geo science and environmental management have been limited with many researchers mostly choosing to focus on the concept of environmental geology which shows the interaction that human beings have with the environment and the impact this relationship has on the ecological system on the environment. The limited research therefore makes it difficult to gain any further knowledge in relation to the use of geo science in environmental management activities. The Murray Darling Basin The river basin is viewed to be the lifeline of the eastern parts of Australia which is made up of Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales. The basin is made up of five river systems which are the Darling River, the Murray River, Murrumbidgee River, Billabong Creek, and the Lachlan River. The Murray Darling Basin is mostly used for 40 percent of the irrigation purposes in the agricul tural fields that are based in these three regions. The diagram below represents the size and topography of the Murray Darling River Basin and the various river systems that are found in Queensland, Victoria and NSW as identified by Prasad and Khan Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Science in Environmental Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Prasad and Khan in their (2002) The most valuable resource of the Murray Darling region is the water that is found in the river which not only sustains the agricultural industry in Australia but also provides a home for the marine wildlife and the plant species that are located around the river basin. According to Ortega, the number of endangered bird species found in the Murray River total 35 while the number of endangered animal species amounts to 16. The river also boasts of having 35 different marine species in the various river systems that make up the Murra y Darling Basin. The river basin is also known to host one of the richest indigenous archaeological sites in Australia that have prehistoric features such as old camp sites, burial grounds, canoe shaped trees and scarred trees. Despite having all these many features, the river has faced degradation as a result of development activities by the Europeans in a span of 50 years that have seen the basin’s resources deteriorate4. Problems in the Murray Darling River Basin The problem of land degradation and salinity became more prominent in the 1960s after the River Murray Commission conducted a study on the salinity levels in the water resources of the river. The results of the study showed that 40 percent of the river’s length had lost a significant amount of its marine wildlife and plant species as a result of the high salinity in the water. The results also showed that 10 percent of the Murray River’s length was impaired which saw the loss of 50 percent of the aqu atic macro invertebrates that were expected to occur there. The high salinity levels have continued to threaten the native plant and marine species that live within the river basin. The salinity levels in the basin accounts for half of Australia’s saline seepage levels which are mostly caused by high irrigation, increased land developments, and erection of structures along the river.Advertising Looking for assessment on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The global climatic weather conditions that keep changing and are erratic have also had an impact on the water levels of the Murray River. The weather changes have led to increased drought and flooding situations that have affected the composition of the river and its five systems. Apart from increased saline levels, the other forms of land degradation that have affected the Murray include water logging and high acidification of the water. The extensive land degradation that has taken place in the Murray flood plains and the major deforestation experienced in the three regions has led to a decrease of vegetation along the river channel. The introduction of exotic tree species such as the willows and poplars has continued to degrade the river basin even further as these trees require more water to grow5. Environmental Flows in the Murray Darling River Environmental flows are described as the releases of water by water catchment areas such as the Murray Darling River to the surroundin g environs of the water areas. Environmental flows which can also be the natural flow regimes of a river are viewed to play an important part in forming the ecological features and wetlands of other river systems that form part of the river basin such as the Murray Darling. The environmental flows of a river are influenced by the shape and size of the river basin, the distribution of the marine habitat and plant species, the structure of the marine habitat and the nature of the relationship between the main river channel and the flood plains. The Murray Darling River is mostly characterised with unpredictable flows with the high flows occurring during the summer and spring seasons of Australia while the low flows occurred during the winter and autumn seasons. The flows became more unpredictable with the increasing amount of development that was taking place near the river basin and the five river systems. The development of structures such as houses and commercial buildings also saw the need to supply water to these structures which was especially high during the autumn and summer seasons. The water quality of the Murray has also been affected by the constant water shortages that arise due to increased consumption activities such as irrigation and water supply activities as well as the severe droughts that have continued to affect most parts of Australia. The table and graph below represents the biotic, monthly environmental flows and environmental condition of the Murray Basin as outlined by the Murray Darling Basin Commission6. Indices Percentage of river length in each category Reference (%) Significantly Impaired (%) Severely Impaired (%) Extremely Impaired (%) Biota Condition 62 28 8 2 Largely unmodified (%) Moderately Modified (%) Substantially Modified (%) Severely Modified (%) Overall environment condition 3 69 29 0 Environmental components: -Hydrological disturbance index 43 44 11 1 -Catchment disturbance index 4 93 3 0 -Habit at index 28 36 34 3 -Nutrient and suspended load index 4 41 49 6 Murray Darling Basin (2009). Murray Darling Basin (2009). Reforms taken to reduce the Degradation of the Murray River The formation of the Murray Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) by the Australian Government was meant to steer major reforms on the river basin that would see the effects of the land degradation being reversed as well as an improvement in the management of water resources. The commission initiated a combination of hydrological and salinity abatement projects that would be used to deal with acid and saline levels in the river basin. The initiation of these projects on the Darling River saw a reduction of 20 percent of the average salinity levels in the river systems that were based in the Southern Part of Australia. To recover the lost plant and marine wildlife species that were present in the river before the degradation, the use of fish ladders and weirs around the dams were introduced. The MDBC has so far spent over 650 million AUD to increase the amount of environmental flows into the river. This amount of money has mostly been used to address the issue of large scale irrigation activities that are taking place in the three regions that encompass the Murray Basin. Some of the projects that have been initiated to deal with irrigation have been water trade programs within the three states of Victoria, NSW and Queensland. The conservation of water has also been used to change the hydrological flow of the water with particular focus on the environmental flows in the headwater dams7. Environmental Management of the Murray-Darling Basin The environmental management of the Murray Darling Basin has been viewed to be a complex process because of the complexity of the river system and the various features that make up the Murray Darling Basin. The various environmental issues that are affecting the basin and the extensive degradation that has taken place in the surrounding areas has b ecome a source of concern for the relevant authorities charged with the conservation of the river. The MDBC which has the main authority for performing conservation and management activities has developed a Basin Cap that will be used to limit the amount of water diverted for consumption purposes. The cap was also developed to deal with issues such as the poor water quality in the Murray River which has been as a result of the degradation that has taken place in the river. The high acidification and salinity in the water has led to the loss of indigenous plant species as well as indigenous marine wildlife. The health of the river is projected to become worse if current management systems that are in place are not changed to deal with the situations. The large amounts of water that are being used for irrigation purposes have led to a reduction in the water levels of the river as a result of poor irrigation management practices. The benefits of the MDBC Basic Cap have seen the stabili sation of rights to access the river for consumption purposes by the existing users. There has also been an increased emphasis on achieving water use efficiency for developmental purposes. Another benefit of the Basic Cap has been a notable decrease in the percolation of the River’s groundwater leading to fewer cases of water logging and lower salinity levels in the water and the soil. The general water quality has also been improved as well as the natural ecosystems found within the river basin.8 Science in Environmental Management The use of science in environmental management activities has been viewed to be an important concept that has continued to gain more prominence in the recent past. Environmental science has been defined as the study of the physical aspects of the environment such as the air, water, soil, plant and animal habitats as well as human activities and their impact on the environment. The scientifical aspect of environmental science analyzes the chemical and biological aspects of the environment such as the water bodies, micro organisms, soils, rocks and minerals. The use of science in environmental management activities has enabled the use of scientific data and results to develop programs that will be used to protect the environment from further degradation and deterioration. Environmental science looks at the relationships between the global, social and human systems that lead to the degradation of the environment and the deterioration of the natural resources found in the environment. Scientific approaches are developed to deal with these issues by creating sustainable science programs for community and business use. Such programs will provide scientific information on what causes the deterioration of the environment and what steps can be used to control and prevent these problems from recurring again in the future9. Environmental Geoscience and the Murray-Darling Basin The severe drought and water shortages that are experienced by the Murray Darling River Basin have dried out some of the wetlands that are located near the Murray River a situation that has seen the wetlands being exposed to sulfidic sediments that have increased the levels of acidification and salinity. Environmental geoscience was conducted in these wetlands to determine the amount of acidification and sulfidic sediments that are formed when there is a reduction of sulphate in the water. The main cases of acidification identified in the River basin are the sulfidic sediments such as acidic sulphate soils that are left behind when the river basin dries. The amount of sulfidic levels have continued to increase as a result of the changing natural wetting and drying cycles that have been caused by the severe droughts. The three wetlands that are located along the Murray Darling River are the Psyche Bend Lagoon, the Tareena Billabong and the Bottle Bend Lagoon. These three wetlands have continued to experience high acidification and salinity l evels in the water which makes them prone to continuous flooding during the rainy season. Geoscience data shows that the most common sulphide mineral found in all the three wetlands to be iron monosulfide greigite which might have an adverse effect on the water resources and the nutrients found in the water10. The diagram below represents the various wetlands and river systems that make up the Murray Darling River Basin as represented by Prasad and Khan in their 2002 report on the water and climate of the Murray Darling River Basin Prasad and Khan in their (2002) The Distribution of Inland Wetlands in the Murray Darling Basin The use of geoscience was used to examine the extent of the sulfidic sediments in the three wetlands. Geoscience data showed that 21 percent of the three wetlands examined had evidence of sulphur in the soil sediments that was of a high concentration. This in turn increased the acidification levels in the water and soil in the Murray Darling River Basin. The h ighest concentration of sulfidic sediments was found in the lower areas of the Murray River. The geoscience data collected from analysing the wetlands also showed that there was a correlation between the sulfidic sediments in the wetlands and the concentration of sulphate in the overlying water columns of the river basin. This high amount of sulphate concentration in the river’s water has been noted to be a cause of concern for most of the wetland managers in the area. There has been an increasing need to return the wetlands to their original form to ensure that the state of the river is healthy. As long as the sulfidic sediments are present in the wetlands, the natural wetting and drying cycle will be unable to take place effectively. The wetting and drying phase should only be reinstated if the risks of acidification have been properly assessed11. Ecosystem Response Modelling in the Murray Darling Basin The modelling of conservation activities has mostly been focused on the use of geoscience to provide guidelines and information that will be used for the water management of the Darling basin which is Australia’s largest and economic water catchment area. The use of ecosystem response models has been viewed to be an important concept when responding to the declining ecological conditions in the Murray River Basin. The quantitative ecosystem models have been developed to ensure that there is better decision making with regards to the issue of water allocation and the deterioration of the Murray Basin. One of the main response models that were proposed to be used in the environmental management of the Darling Basin was CART analysis which can be used to model thresholds that would represent the conditions of the flood plains and the wetlands. Other response systems that incorporated the use of geoscience information and knowledge were the use of geographic information systems that had remote sensors that would be used to detect the extent of degra dation in the plant and marine species found in the river basin. An example of a remote sensing approach according to Saintilan and Overton is the Landsat archive technique which can be used to reconstruct the original form of the river by analyzing the historical frequency of the river’s degradation over the large wetland areas. Decision support systems have also been seen as ecosystem response models because they incorporate the ecological and hydrological aspects in the development of the decision models that will be used to manage and conserve the water. Examples of decision support systems that have been used on the River Basin are the Murray Flow Assessment tools and the water allocation decision support system. The use of these response models has ensured that there is proper management of the environmental flows of the Murray Basin and that there are developed plans that will be used to manage conservation activities. The diagram below demonstrates an example of a res ponse modelling system that can be used to manage the Murray Darling River Basin12. Saintilan and Overton (2010) Geo science data on the Murray Darling Basin The geoscience information that was collected focused mostly on the environmental impacts of the climate changes to the river basin. General circulation models were used to predict the amount of green house emissions in the atmosphere that would affect the composition of the river. Geo science information was used to predict the climate changes that would take place in Australia in 2030. The predictions saw that there would be a rise in the average temperature from 0.4 to 2.0 degrees Celsius. The amount of rainfall and snow experienced during the winter season would also increase from -10% to +5% in 2030. The predicted changes that would take place in the river basin would be between +1% and -15%. This would mean that the level of water in the basin will reduce drastically during the winter and spring season. The diagram below represents the changes in the amount of rainfall that have been predicted for the year 2030 based on Prasad and Khans 2002 synthesis report on climate in the Murray Darling Basin. Prasad and Khan (2002) The Macquarie catchment was used as a model to explain the effects of climate change on the availability of water in the area. This was the only study that was conducted in the whole of Australia. The integrated quantity quality model (IQQM) was developed to explain the changes in precipitation and evaporation in the Macquarie catchment. The IQQM analysed the risks that were associated with a reduction in water levels in the catchment area. The results of the study showed that the allocation of the water for irrigation purposes would be below 50 percent of the required allotment. The other result of the study was that the wetland areas would experience a decrease in the number of rain days experienced in the region13. The use of Science in the Murray Darling Basin River modelling s oftware has been used by water managers to understand the effects of increased irrigation and land degradation on the Murray Basin. The modelling software incorporates the use of computer based programs that track the amount of water in the river basin which will help in the management of water supply for irrigation and consumption purposes. The use of geoscience knowledge and basic scientific models has been used to develop these river models to ensure that water management activities taking place in the river are done effectively. Environmental geoscience has also been used to assess the floodplain ecology of the river and its riveline which is facing the lack of environmental flows. Geoscience has been used to investigate the ecosystems within the flood plains and their functionality as well as the climate in the Murray River region. The impact of the changing climate has also been analysed by looking at how it will affect the future water resources of the river basin. Groundwate r research will also be conducted through the use of geoscience information and knowledge. This research will be used to manage the groundwater resources of the Murray Basin for the current and future durations. The amount of geoscience data collected on groundwater research showed that there was a need to conduct numerical modelling for groundwater risk assessment activities and the setting of boundaries that would be used to plan for the management of the groundwater. Geoscience knowledge was also necessary in evaluating the risks of groundwater such as the levels of salinity, acidification, base flow impacts and the ecological assets. 14 The Geospatial inundation patterns in the semi arid regions of the River Basin The flood plain wetlands of the Murray Darling River are viewed to be the most ecologically significant components in the whole of Australia’s water areas in terms of the high abundance of aquatic and plant habitats located within the wetlands. The environmental flow of the river has been seen to be the main driver behind the sustenance of the river ecology and the inundation patterns of the floodplain wetlands. Inundation has been identified as one of the major influencers of marine distribution, water composition and the survival of the plant species in the Murray basin. Understanding the geoscientific aspects of temporal and spatial variability in the inundation patterns is a critical step in managing the environmental flows of the Murray Darling River. The use of satellite remote sensing such as the Landsat satellite has provided the opportunity to monitor the inundation patterns of the floodplain wetland areas. The patterns will be used to manage the ecosystem in the Murray Basin by mainly focusing on the vegetative species in the basin as well as the marine habitats15. Use of Geoscience in the restoration of significant wetlands in NSW The significant wetlands in the Northern part of the Murray Darling basin have faced a constant dec line over the past decade which has seen the mortality of wetland trees and the gradual reduction in the amount of wetland vegetation species. To respond to the ecological issues that were affecting these critical wetlands in the Northern parts of the Murray Basin, the NSW government in a collaboration with the Victoria and Queensland state governments initiated the rivers environmental restoration program (RERP) that would incorporate the use of geoscientifc information and knowledge for environmental management purposes16. The scientific part of the RERP program was used to improve the hydrological representation of the wetlands in the northern parts of the river basin by the construction of hydrodynamic models and the conducting of soil surveys to determine the amount of degradation currently in the basin. Geoscientifc knowledge has been used to develop models such as the LIDAR which have been used to formulate water management programs and prediction programs that will assess th e frequencies and durations of flooding in the area. The use of hydrological models and ecosystem response models in the Murray area has been viewed to be important in managing the river water. The effects of environmental flow on the growth of marine species The northern part of the Murray Darling Basin has faced alterations in the timing and frequency of the flood events that are experienced in the region which has resulted in the decline of water levels and the general health of the river basin’s vegetation, marine species. The efforts to manage the health of the basin have been hampered by the lack of proper understanding of the biology of the various freshwater marine species and how the environmental flow characteristics will impact the number of these fish species in the river basin. The two fish species that were studied included the Retropinna semoni/ Australian Smelt and the Nematolosa erebi (bony bream).which are commonly found in the Gwydir wetlands of the Murray Darling River.17 Conclusion There has been limited research on the field of geoscience in environmental management because of the concept being fairly new. The review of geoscience literature and articles for research that can be used in the environmental management of the Murray Darling River Basin has shown that there is limited research conducted on the subject of geo science in environmental management programs. The research used in this paper has however demonstrated that there is hope for future studies and research work in the topic as the scientific aspect of the topic is useful in developing and analysing environmental conservation and management activities. Bibliography Australian Water Resources, ‘River Condition in the Murray-Darling Basin 2001’, Australian Government, National Water Commission, 2005. Bhat, A., ‘The politics of model maintenance: the Murray Darling and Brantas River Basins Compared,’ Water Alternatives, Vol.1, No.2, 2008, pp.201 -218., Department of the Environment and Heritage, ‘Integrated Water Resource Management  in Australia: The Murray-Darling Basin Initiative,’ Australian Government, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, 2004. Hall, K.C. and Baldwin, D.S., ‘Distribution of inland wetlands with sulfidic sediments in the Murray Darling Basin, Australia,’ Science of the Total Environment, Vol.370, No.1, 2006, pp.235-244 Heagney, E., Spencer, J., Fowler, A., and Allman, R. ‘The effect of flow on the growth  and conditions of two native fish species Gwydir wetlands’ University of NSW, Sydney, 2010. Murray Darling Basin, ‘Environmental Flows and Water Quality for the River Murray,’ http://www2.mdbc.gov.au/nrm/water_issues/environmental_flows.html, 2009. Newage Publishers, ‘ Environmental Science,’ http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001281.pdf,2010. Ortega, V., ‘Australia’ sea rch for another food bowl,’ http://candobetter.org/node/1847, 2010, Prasad, A., and Khan, S., ‘Murray-Darling Basin dialogue on water and climate,’ River symposium, Brisbane, 2002 Saintilan, N., and Hillan, J., ‘Progress towards the restoration of significant wetlands in  NSW under the Rivers Environmental Restoration Program,’ Rivers and Wetlands Unit, NSW Department of Environmental Climate Change. 2010. Saintilan, N., and Overton, I., ‘Ecosystem response modeling in the Murray Darling  Basin,’ Csiro Publishing, Victoria, Australia, 2010, Pp. 412-415 Simpson, C. (Ed.) GEM NEWS: Newsletter of the IUGS commission on Geoscience for  environmental Management. 2007, pp 1-28 Thomas, R., Lu, Y., Cox, S. and Hunter, S., ‘Spatial inundation patterns in floodplains  wetland of semi-arid regions in the Murray-Darling Basin,’ University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, 2010. UNEP, ‘Environmental Flows: The living Murray Initiative, Australia. Report for the  Global Ministerial Environment Forum, Jeju, Korea, 29-31 March 2004, p.2 Webb, J., ‘Inland acid Sulphate soils: a study of three wetlands along the Murray-  Darling River.’ Environmental Geoscience, http://www.latrobe.edu.au/geosci/honours/glover.htm, 2009, Young, B., ‘Science supporting water management in the Murray Darling Basin,’ CSIRO, http://www.csiro.au, 2010. Footnotes 1 UNEP, ‘Environmental Flows: The living Murray Initiative, Australia. Report for the Global Ministerial Environment Forum, Jeju, Korea, 29-31 March 2004, p.1 2 UNEP, ‘Environmental Flows: The living Murray Initiative, Australia. Report for the Global Ministerial Environment Forum, Jeju, Korea, 29-31 March 2004, p.2 3 Colin Simpson (Ed.) GEM NEWS: Newsletter of the IUGS commission on Geoscience for environmental Management. 2007, pp 1-28 4 Vivienne Ortega, ‘Australia’ search for another food bowl,’ htt p://candobetter.org/node/1847, 2010, 5 Australian Water Resources, ‘River Condition in the Murray-Darling Basin 2001’, Australian Government, National Water Commission, 2005. 6 Murray Darling Basin, ‘ Environmental Flows and Water Quality for the River Murray,’ http://www2.mdbc.gov.au/nrm/water_issues/environmental_flows.html, 2009. 7 Anjali Bhat, ‘ The politics of model maintenance: the Murray Darling and Brantas River Basins Compared,’ Water Alternatives, Vol.1, No.2, 2008, pp.201-218., 8 Department of the Environment and Heritage, ‘ Integrated Water Resource Management in Australia: The Murray-Darling Basin Initiative,’ Australian Government, Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water ,Population and Communities, 2004. 9 Newage Publishers, ‘ Environmental Science,’ http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001281.pdf, 2010. 10 Dr. John Webb, ‘ Inland acid sulphate soils: a study of three wetlands al ong the Murray River, Australia,’ Environmental Geoscience, http://www.latrobe.edu.au/geosci/honours/glover.htm,2009, 11 K.C.Hall and D.S Baldwin, ‘Distribution of inland wetlands with sulfidic sediments in the Murray Darling Basin, Australia,’ Science of the Total Environment, Vol.370, No.1, 2006, pp.235-244 12 Neil Saintilan and Ian Overton, ‘Ecosystem response modeling in the Murray Darling Basin,’ Csiro Publishing, Victoria, Australia, 2010, Pp. 412-415 13 Awadhesh Prasad and Shahbaz Khan, ‘ Murray-Darling Basin dialogue on water and climate,’ River symposium, Brisbane, 2002 14 Dr. Bill Young, ‘ Science supporting water management in the Murray Darling Basin,’ CSIRO, http://www.csiro.au, 2010. 15 Rachael Thomas, Yi Lu, Steve Cox and Simon Hunter, ‘Spatial inundation patterns in floodplains wetland of semi-arid regions in the Murray-Darling Basin,’ University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, 2010. 16 Neil Saintilan and Jeff Hillan, ‘Progress towards the restoration of significant wetlands in NSW under the Rivers Environmental Restoration Program,’ Rivers and Wetlands Unit, NSW Department of Environmental Climate Change, 2010. 17 Elizabeth Heagney, Jennifer Spencer, Ash Fowler and Rich Allman, ‘ The effect of flow on the growth and conditions of two native fish species Gwydir wetlands’ University of NSW, Sydney,2010. 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Obamas Health Care Reform Speech (Full Text)

Obamas Health Care Reform Speech (Full Text) Madame Speaker, Vice President Biden, Members of Congress, and the American people:When I spoke here last winter, this nation was facing the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression. We were losing an average of 700,000 jobs per month. Credit was frozen. And our financial system was on the verge of collapse.As any American who is still looking for work or a way to pay their bills will tell you, we are by no means out of the woods. A full and vibrant recovery is many months away. And I will not let up until those Americans who seek jobs can find them; until those businesses that seek capital and credit can thrive; until all responsible homeowners can stay in their homes.That is our ultimate goal. But thanks to the bold and decisive action we have taken since January, I can stand here with confidence and say that we have pulled this economy back from the brink.I want to thank the members of this body for your efforts and your support in these last several months, and especially those who have taken the difficult votes that have put us on a path to recovery. I also want to thank the American people for their patience and resolve during this trying time for our nation.But we did not come here just to clean up crises. We came to build a future. So tonight, I return to speak to all of you about an issue that is central to that future and that is the issue of healthcare.I am not the first President to take up this cause, but I am determined to be the last. It has now been nearly a century since Theodore Roosevelt first called for healthcare reform. And ever since, nearly every president and Congress, whether Democrat or Republican, has attempted to meet this challenge in some way. A bill for comprehensive health reform was first introduced by John Dingell Sr. in 1943. Sixty-five years later, his son continues to introduce that same bill at the beginning of each session.Our collective failure to meet this challenge – year after year, decade after decade – has led us to a breaking point. Everyone understands the extraordinary hardships that are placed on the uninsured, who live every day just one accident or illness away from bankruptcy. These are not primarily people on welfare. These are middle-class Americans. Some can’t get insurance on the job.Others are self-employed, and can’t afford it, since buying insurance on your own costs you three times as much as the coverage you get from your employer. Many other Americans who are willing and able to pay are still denied insurance due to previous illnesses or conditions that insurance companies decide are too risky or expensive to cover.We are the only advanced democracy on Earth – the only wealthy nation – that allows such hardships for millions of its people. There are now more than 30 million American citizens who cannot get coverage. In just a two-year period, one in every three Americans goes without healthcare coverage at some point. And ever y day, 14,000 Americans lose their coverage. In other words, it can happen to anyone.But the problem that plagues the healthcare system is not just a problem of the uninsured. Those who do have insurance have never had less security and stability than they do today. More and more Americans worry that if you move, lose your job, or change your job, you’ll lose your health insurance too. More and more Americans pay their premiums, only to discover that their insurance company has dropped their coverage when they get sick, or won’t pay the full cost of care. It happens every day.One man from Illinois lost his coverage in the middle of chemotherapy because his insurer found that he hadn’t reported gallstones that he didn’t even know about. They delayed his treatment, and he died because of it. Another woman from Texas was about to get a double mastectomy when her insurance company canceled her policy because she forgot to declare a case of acne.By the time sh e had her insurance reinstated, her breast cancer more than doubled in size. That is heart-breaking, it is wrong, and no one should be treated that way in the United States of America.Then there’s the problem of rising costs. We spend one-and-a-half times more per person on healthcare than any other country, but we aren’t any healthier for it. This is one of the reasons that insurance premiums have gone up three times faster than wages. It’s why so many employers   especially small businesses are forcing their employees to pay more for insurance, or are dropping their coverage entirely.It’s why so many aspiring entrepreneurs cannot afford to open a business in the first place, and why American businesses that compete internationally   like our automakers are at a huge disadvantage. And it’s why those of us with health insurance are also paying a hidden and growing tax for those without it about $1000 per year that pays for somebody else†™s emergency room and charitable care.Finally, our healthcare system is placing an unsustainable burden on taxpayers. When healthcare costs grow at the rate they have, it puts greater pressure on programs like Medicare and Medicaid. If we do nothing to slow these skyrocketing costs, we will eventually be spending more on Medicare and Medicaid  than every other government program combined. Put simply, our healthcare problem is our deficit problem. Nothing else even comes close.These are the facts. Nobody disputes them. We know we must reform this system. The question is how.There are those on the left who believe that the only way to fix the system is through a single-payer system like Canada’s, where we would severely restrict the private insurance market and have the government provide coverage for everyone.On the right, there are those who argue that we should end the employer-based system and leave individuals to buy health insurance on their own.I have to say that the re are arguments to be made for both approaches. But either one would represent a radical shift that would disrupt the healthcare most people currently have.Since healthcare represents one-sixth of our economy, I believe it makes more sense to build on what works and fix what doesn’t, rather than try to build an entirely new system from scratch.And that is precisely what those of you in Congress have tried to do over the past several months.During that time, we have seen Washington at its best and its worst. We have seen many in this chamber work tirelessly for the better part of this year to offer thoughtful ideas about how to achieve reform. Of the five committees asked to develop bills, four have completed their work, and the Senate Finance Committee announced today that it will move forward next week. That has never happened before.Our overall efforts have been supported by an unprecedented coalition of doctors and nurses; hospitals, seniors’ groups and even drug c ompanies   many of whom opposed reform in the  past. And there is agreement in this chamber on about 80% of what needs to be done, putting us closer to the goal of reform than we have ever been.But what we have also seen in these last months is the same partisan spectacle that only hardens the disdain many Americans have toward their own government.Instead of honest debate, we have seen scare tactics. Some have dug into unyielding ideological camps that offer no hope of compromise. Too many have used this as an opportunity to score short-term political points, even if it robs the country of our opportunity to solve a long-term challenge. And out of this blizzard of charges and countercharges, confusion has reigned.Well the time for bickering is over. The time for games has passed. Now is the season for action. Now is when we must bring the best ideas of both parties together, and show the American people that we can still do what we were sent here to do. Now is the time to deliv er on healthcare.The plan I’m announcing tonight would meet three basic goals: It will provide more security and stability to those who have health insurance. It will provide insurance to those who don’t. And it will slow the growth of health care costs for our families, our businesses, and our government.It’s a plan that asks everyone to take responsibility for meeting this challenge   not just government and insurance companies, but employers and individuals. And it’s a plan that incorporates ideas from senators and Congressmen; from Democrats and Republicans and yes, from some of my opponents in both the primary and general election.Here are the details that every American needs to know about this plan: First, if you are among the hundreds of millions of Americans who already have health insurance through your job, Medicare, Medicaid, or the VA, nothing in this plan will require you or your employer to change the coverage or the doctor you have. Let me repeat this: Nothing in our plan requires you to change what you have.What this plan will do is to make the insurance you have work better for you. Under this plan, it will be against the law for insurance companies to deny you coverage because of a preexisting condition. As soon as I sign this bill, it will be against the law for insurance companies to drop your coverage when you get sick or water it down when you need it most.They will no longer be able to place some arbitrary cap on the amount of coverage you can receive in a given year or a lifetime. We will place a limit on how much you can be charged for out-of-pocket expenses, because in the United States of America, no one should go broke because they get sick.And insurance companies will be required to cover, with no extra charge, routine checkups and preventive care, like mammograms and colonoscopies   because there’s no reason we shouldn’t be catching diseases like breast cancer and colon cancer before they get worse.That makes sense, it saves money, and it saves lives. That’s what Americans who have health insurance can expect from this plan   more security and stability.Now, if you’re one of the tens of millions of Americans who don’t currently have health insurance, the second part of this plan will finally offer you quality, affordable choices. If you lose your job or change your job, you will be able to get coverage. If you strike out on your own and start a small business, you will be able to get coverage. We will do this by creating a new insurance exchange   a marketplace where individuals and small businesses will be able to shop for health insurance at competitive prices.Insurance companies will have an incentive to participate in this exchange because it lets them compete for millions of new customers. As one big group, these customers will have greater leverage to bargain with the insurance companies for better prices and quality coverage. Thi s is how large companies and government employees get affordable insurance. It’s how everyone in this Congress gets affordable insurance. And it’s time to give every American the same opportunity that we’ve given ourselves.For those individuals and small businesses who still cannot afford the lower-priced insurance available in the exchange, we will provide tax credits, the size of which will be based on your need. And all insurance companies that want access to this new marketplace will have to abide by the consumer protections I already mentioned.This exchange will take effect in four years, which will give us time to do it right. In the meantime, for those Americans who can’t get insurance today because they have preexisting medical conditions, we will immediately offer low-cost coverage that will protect you against financial ruin if you become seriously ill. This was a good idea when Senator John McCain proposed it in the campaign, it’s a good idea now, and we should embrace it.Now, even if we provide these affordable options, there may be those   particularly the young and healthy who still want to take the risk and go without coverage. There may still be companies that refuse to do right by their workers.The problem is, such irresponsible behavior costs all the rest of us money. If there are affordable options and people still don’t sign up for health insurance, it means we pay for those people’s expensive emergency room visits.If some businesses don’t provide workers health care, it forces the rest of us to pick up the tab when their workers get sick, and gives those businesses an unfair advantage over their.And unless everybody does their part, many of the insurance reforms we seek   especially requiring insurance companies to cover preexisting conditions just can’t be achieved.That’s why under my plan, individuals will be required to carry basic health insurance just as most states require you to carry auto insurance.Likewise, businesses will be required to either offer their workers healthcare, or chip in to help cover the cost of their workers. There will be a hardship waiver for those individuals who still cannot afford coverage, and 95% of all small businesses, because of their size and narrow profit margin, would be exempt from these requirements.But we cannot have large businesses and individuals who can afford coverage game the system by avoiding responsibility to themselves or their employees. Improving our healthcare system only works if everybody does their part.While there remain some significant details to be ironed out, I believe a broad consensus exists for the aspects of the plan I just outlined:consumer protections for those with insurance,an exchange that allows individuals and small businesses to purchase affordable coverage, anda requirement that people who can afford insurance get insurance.And I have no doubt that these reforms wou ld greatly benefit Americans from all walks of life, as well as the economy as a whole.Still, given all the misinformation that’s been spread over the past few months, I realize that many Americans have grown nervous about reform. So tonight I’d like to address some of the key controversies that are still out there.Some of people’s concerns have grown out of bogus claims spread by those whose only agenda is to kill reform at any cost. The best example is the claim, made not just by radio and cable talk show hosts, but politicians, that we plan to set up panels of bureaucrats with the power to kill off senior citizens. Such a charge would be laughable if it weren’t so cynical and irresponsible. It is a lie, plain and simple.To my progressive friends, I would remind you that for decades, the driving idea behind reform has been to end insurance company abuses and make coverage affordable for those without it. The public option is only a means to that end   and we should remain open to other ideas that accomplish our ultimate goal.And to my Republican friends, I say that rather than making wild claims about a government takeover of healthcare, we should work together to address any legitimate concerns you may have. There are also those who claim that our reform effort will insure illegal immigrants. This, too, is false   the reforms I’m proposing would not apply to those who are here illegally. And one more misunderstanding I want to clear up under our plan, no federal dollars will be used to fund abortions, and federal conscience laws will remain in place.My healthcare proposal has also been attacked by some who oppose reform as a â€Å"government takeover† of the entire healthcare system. As proof, critics point to a provision in our plan that allows the uninsured and small businesses to choose a publicly-sponsored insurance option, administered by the government just like Medicaid or Medicare.So let me set the reco rd straight. My guiding principle is, and always has been, that consumers do better when there is choice and competition. Unfortunately, in 34 states, 75% of the insurance market is controlled by five or fewer companies. In Alabama, almost 90% is controlled by just one company. Without competition, the price of insurance goes up and the quality goes down.And it makes it easier for insurance companies to treat their customers badly – by cherry-picking the healthiest individuals and trying to drop the sickest; by overcharging small businesses who have no leverage; and by jacking up rates.Insurance executives don’t do this because they are bad people. They do it because it’s profitable. As one former insurance executive testified before Congress, insurance companies are not only encouraged to find reasons to drop the seriously ill; they are rewarded for it. All of this is in service of meeting what this former executive called Wall Street’s relentless profit expectations.Now, I have no interest in putting insurance companies out of business. They provide a legitimate service, and employ a lot of our friends and neighbors. I just want to hold them accountable. The insurance reforms that I’ve already mentioned would do just that.But an additional step we can take to keep insurance companies honest is by making a not-for-profit public option available in the exchange.Let me be clear   it would only be an option for those who don’t have insurance. No one would be forced to choose it, and it would not impact those of you who already have insurance. In fact, based on Congressional Budget Office estimates, we believe that less than 5% of Americans would sign up.Despite all this, the insurance companies and their allies don’t like this idea. They argue that these private companies can’t fairly compete with the government. And they’d be right if taxpayers were subsidizing this public insurance option. But th ey won’t be. I have insisted that like any private insurance company, the public insurance option would have to be self-sufficient and rely on the premiums it collects.But by avoiding some of the overhead that gets eaten up at private companies by profits, administrative costs and executive salaries, it could provide a good deal for consumers. It would also keep pressure on private insurers to keep their policies affordable and treat their customers better, the same way public colleges and universities provide choice and competition to students without in any way inhibiting a vibrant system of private colleges and universities.It’s worth noting that a strong majority of Americans still favor a public insurance option of the sort I’ve proposed tonight. But its impact shouldn’t be exaggerated   by the left, the right, or the media. It is only one part of my plan, and should not be used as a handy excuse for the usual Washington ideological battle.This is the plan I’m proposing. It’s a plan that incorporates ideas from many of the people in this room tonight   Democrats and Republicans. And I will continue to seek common ground in the weeks ahead. If you come to me with a serious set of proposals, I will be there to listen. My door is always open.But know this: I will not waste time with those who have made the calculation that it’s better politics to kill this plan than improve it. I will not stand by while the special interests use the same old tactics to keep things exactly the way they are.If you misrepresent what’s in the plan, we will call you out. And I will not accept the status quo as a solution. Not this time. Not now.Everyone in this room knows what will happen if we do nothing. Our deficit will grow. More families will go bankrupt. More businesses will close. More Americans will lose their coverage when they are sick and need it most. And more will die as a result. We know these things to be true.That is why we cannot fail. Because there are too many Americans counting on us to succeed   the ones who suffer silently, and the ones who shared their stories with us at town hall meetings, in emails, and in letters.I received one of those letters a few days ago. It was from our beloved friend and colleague, Ted Kennedy. He had written it back in May, shortly after he was told that his illness was terminal. He asked that it be delivered upon his death.In it, he spoke about what a happy time his last months were, thanks to the love and support of family and friends, his wife, Vicki, and his children, who are here tonight. And he expressed confidence that this would be the year that healthcare reform   Ã¢â‚¬Å"that great unfinished business of our society,† he called it would finally pass.He repeated the truth that health care is decisive for our future prosperity, but he also reminded me that  Ã¢â‚¬Å"it concerns more than material things.† â€Å"What we face ,† he wrote, â€Å"is above all a moral issue; at stake are not just the details of policy, but fundamental principles of social justice and the character of our country.†I’ve thought about that phrase quite a bit in recent days   the character of our country. One of the unique and wonderful things about America has always been our self-reliance, our rugged individualism, our fierce defense of freedom and our healthy skepticism of government. And figuring out the appropriate size and role of government has always been a source of rigorous and sometimes angry debate.For some of Ted Kennedy’s critics, his brand of liberalism represented an affront to American liberty. In their mind, his passion for universal health care was nothing more than a passion for big government.But those of us who knew Teddy and worked with him here people of both parties   know that what drove him was something more. His friend, Orrin Hatch, knows that. They worked together to provide children with health insurance. His friend John McCain knows that. hey worked together on a Patient’s Bill of Rights. His friend Chuck Grassley knows that. They worked together to provide healthcare to children with disabilities.On issues like these, Ted Kennedy’s passion was born not of some rigid ideology, but of his own experience. It was the experience of having two children stricken with cancer. He never forgot the sheer terror and helplessness that any parent feels when a child is badly sick; and he was able to imagine what it must be like for those without insurance; what it would be like to have to say to a wife or a child or an aging parent   there is something that could make you better, but I just can’t afford it.That large-heartedness   that concern and regard for the plight of others is not a partisan feeling. It is not a Republican or a Democratic feeling. It, too, is part of the American character. Our ability to stand in other peopl e’s shoes. A recognition that we are all in this together; that when fortune turns against one of us, others are there to lend a helping hand.A belief that in this country, hard work and responsibility should be rewarded by some measure of security and fair play; and an acknowledgement that sometimes government has to step in to help deliver on that promise. This has always been the history of our progress.In 1933, when over half of our seniors could not support themselves and millions had seen their savings wiped away, there were those who argued that Social Security would lead to socialism. But the men and women of Congress stood fast, and we are all the better for it.In 1965, when some argued that Medicare represented a government takeover of healthcare, members of Congress, Democrats and Republicans, did not back down. They joined together so that all of us could enter our golden years with some basic peace of mind. You see, our predecessors understood that government cou ld not, and should not, solve every problem. They understood that there are instances when the gains in security from government action are not worth the added constraints on our freedom.But they also understood that the danger of too much government is matched by the perils of too little; that without the leavening hand of wise policy, markets can crash, monopolies can stifle competition, and the vulnerable can be exploited.What was true then remains true today. I understand how difficult this healthcare debate has been. I know that many in this country are deeply skeptical that government is looking out for them.I understand that the politically safe move would be to kick the can further down the road   to defer reform one more year, or one more election, or one more term. But that’s not what the moment calls for. That’s not what we came here to do. We did not come to fear the future. We came here to shape it. I still believe we can act even when it’s hard. I still believe we can replace acrimony with civility, and gridlock with progress.I still believe we can do great things, and that here and now we will meet history’s test. Because that is who we are. That is our calling. That is our character. Thank you, God Bless You, and may God Bless the United States of America.

Empathize vs. Sympathize

Empathize vs. Sympathize Empathize vs. Sympathize Empathize vs. Sympathize By Maeve Maddox A reader says, Ive always been confused on how to use [the words empathize and sympathize] in proper context. For about 300 years, English speakers didn’t have to choose between sympathize and empathize to express the idea of sharing another’s feelings. Empathize hadn’t been invented yet. The first OED example of sympathize in the sense of â€Å"to share the feelings of another† is dated 1607; the first use of empathize with this meaning dates from 1916.    However, the noun empathy was introduced in 1895 by a psychologist to describe â€Å"a physical property of the nervous system analogous to electrical capacitance, believed to be correlated with feeling.† This definition of empathy did not survive, but the word has found a lasting place in the vocabulary of psychology as the English equivalent of German Einfà ¼hlung: â€Å"sympathetic understanding.† This kind of empathy is â€Å"the ability to understand and appreciate another person’s feelings and experience.† Before the psychological term empathize entered the general vocabulary, speakers did just fine with sympathize when they wished to speak of feeling the joy or pain of others. Now that we have a second word for the same concept, empathize has come to denote a stronger, more personal sense of fellow feeling than sympathize. For example, I may sympathize with the fire victim who has lost her home and all of her possessions, but I cannot empathize with her because, mercifully, I have not experienced that trauma in my own life. On the other hand, because I had to spend a day and a night in a Red Cross emergency shelter during an ice storm, I can empathize with people who must live in shelters for extended periods. The great gift of literature is that it enables readers to empathize with a wide variety of fellow creatures. They don’t even have to be human. When I read Black Beauty, I empathized with a horse. Sympathy and empathy are equally beautiful human characteristics. Sympathize is appropriate in most contexts. Empathizeis best suited to situations that you have experienced yourself, either in the real world or through the power of literature. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Punctuating â€Å"So† at the Beginning of a SentenceAmong vs. AmongstProverb vs. Adage

Code of Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Code of Ethics - Essay Example Normally, individuals and institutions develop codes of ethics for their personal and professional lives to promote harmonious and acceptable behavior within their respective environments. Although a number of approaches to developing codes of ethics are available, the underpinning rule demands all standards of ethics to ensure clarity and objectivity in the values and principles, plainly indicating the implementation and monitoring plan, and a plan for periodical ethical auditing. Statement of Values For an individual or organization to succeed in personal or professional world, there is need to put in place a concrete statement that determines the values and principles that party cherishes. These values include personal integrity, responsibility, honesty, excellence, and respect. These values have proved to be effective as far as both personal and career advancements are concerned (Hatcher & Aragon, 2000). 1. Personal integrity – one needs to engage in constructive behavior that has the benefit of enhancing individual or organization’s image. In order to ensure personal integrity, an individual should always build their reputation and avoid any behavior that questions one’s credibility. 2. ... This means always aiming for the best quality in productivity and output in school or professional lifestyle in accordance to the prevailing evaluation criteria. Since this is a continuous process, a person can undergo continuous process of perfection, as there is no limit to this principle. 5. Respect – it implies obey prevailing regulations, all stakeholders, and third parties. By being respectful at all times, one earns respect and integrity that in turn that helps in boosting their ethical perception. Through responsible upbringing, most parents have been able to instill these crucial values into the systems of their young ones through constant guidance and correction. This forms the basis of ethical development as high ethical values and good morals begin from as early as during the childhood years of a given person. Individuals can acquire ethical principles from learning activities at school or while attending religious teachings where they inculcate a myriad of moral teachings that over the years form their ethical standards. Various approaches through which parents, mentors, teachers, role models, and guardians impart the ethical values exist with the one commonly used by parents at home being the end-based approach. This method involves evaluation the benefits or otherwise consequences of a particular course of to the family members or the public. Through understanding the consequences, individuals especially the children can reconsider their actions thereby shaping their own ethical principles (Hatcher & Aragon, 2000). While at school or in religious meetings, the teachers employed the rule-based approach that contemplates the evaluation of the motive of n action. In this case, a particular course of action was morally wrong or right depending on its

Running the business from the palm of your hand Essay

Running the business from the palm of your hand - Essay Example In this context the mobile digital platform is gaining significance nowadays. Now people are using their mobile as a means not only to call, chat or message, but to carry out their business functions as well since mobile is one thing they always carry with them. With the introduction of Mobile OS like iPhone OS, Android, Windows OS people are developing apps which caters to everyday needs right from their home to business. Hence application making companies like GP Apps, IndiaNIC, Grapple, SourceBits etc are coming out with apps which cater to everyday business needs. Mobile application is software developed to serve a specific need of individuals, business organization etc. Business Functions are basically operations that need to be carried out by an organization. Like for a Software company the key operations are writing codes, testing, maintenance etc. For a Bank it is accepting deposits, giving loans etc. In TCHO Chocolate, which creates unique flavors of chocolate uses iPhone applications that helps his business process function smoothly. It enables the owner Timothy Childs to remotely control the Flavor Machine, control the time, temperatures, and turn on and off whenever he needs. Through the app Childs can remotely view several video cameras and thus know the status of the factory. General Electric Mobile has their own Mobile center of excellence which develops apps which caters to their business needs. For GE’s Sales and marketing personnel it acts as a great boon as they can share business information and presentation with their colleagues and customers. They also use Transformer Monitoring app which manages their gas turbine inventory and electric transformers in the whole world. Along with it their PDS Movement planner helps monitor railway tracks and diagnose the locomotives. In Dow Corning, the employees use a Roambi Visualizer app which helps them to view the business data including sales figures, their trends and projections in real time basis and analyze them. Their Analytics App for iPhone monitors the Web site traffic along with the online sales for their XIAMETER brand. Using these executives monitors globally what contents are useful for them. Sunbelt Rentals uses Mobile SalesPro app which integrates several databases and systems for the sal es team. Hence this helps the sales team to stay up breast with the latest information on rental rates and availability of equipment. Answer 2 Operational efficiency is the ratio between the input that a business needs and the output which a business delivers. Inputs can be people, money or time. Outputs are new customers, money, innovation, speed, customer loyalty etc. (Kenneth, 2010, p.81). There are several reasons as to why a business should invest in information systems. 1. Operational excellence: Information helps managers to achieve higher levels of productivity and efficiency in business operations. For example Wal-Mart uses a RetailLink system, which links their suppliers to all Wal-Mart's stores. When a customer purchases an item, the supplier knows that he has to ship a

The Differences Between Internal And External Sources Of Business Finance Finance Essay

The Differences Between Internal And External Sources Of Business Finance Finance Essay Businesses require financing in order to operate. The source of this finance can be either internal or external and furthermore it can further subdivided into long or short term. Long terms sources are those that provide finance for more than a year while short term provide for less than a year; Internal sources of finance come from within the business and do not require the agreement of anyone beyond directors and managers of the business. (LOE 2010:317). The long term sources of internal finance include retained profits while short term sources include selling of inventories, extending period of credit from suppliers and stricter credit control over funds owed by credit customers (LOE 2010). Sources of finance are considered short term because they can easily be reversed in the short run. External sources of finance on the other hand require(s) the compliance of potential shareholders (LOE 2010:317) and in this case the company owes outside institutions or individuals (Brindley 200 8). According to LOE (2010), long term sources of external sources of finance include ordinary shares, preference shares, long term loans, finance leases, hire purchase agreements etc. While short term sources of external finance include bank overdrafts, debt factoring and invoice discounting. Difficulties SMEs face in raising adequate finance: SMEs face numerous challenges in raising enough finance for their business. According to Propoarco (2009:13) difficulties in gaining access to financing constitute the main stumbling block for SME development in Sub Saharan African. This is caused by a number of factors. First, there are inadequate personal funds and resources to fully fund the business and this requires that they look for external sources of finance where they are likely to encounter further challenges. Lack of collateral Banks require guarantees in the form of assets, forecast of business growth etc in order to approve long and short term loans and ensure that they can get their money back through payments or by selling off the defaulters assets. Unfortunately most SMEs do not have many assets in the business name as they are start ups and this poses challenges. Moreover, because some SMEs are sole proprietorships, it can be difficult to separate the SMEs assets from those of the business owner (oecd.org). Banks are therefore weary of providing funding where there is no clarity especially when it is unclear regarding the health of the business and its assets. There is no guarantee that the SME can sustain loan payments. High Cost of finance, Too high interest rates that are unsustainable. SMEs are considered high risk because they have a high failure rate and therefore more likely to default on loans (ITC 2009). As such, in order to counter their risk of lending to such enterprises, banks charge high interest rates. This in turn makes access to funding expensive for SMEs compared to larger organisations that are not viewed as high risk. SME owners sometimes lack access to information regarding where to access funds and may not be aware of the requirements in order to access these funds ITC 2009). Moreover SME may not have a clear and well constructed business plan that details the business path over the next few years; a key requirement for most financing institutions; or the business plan may be poorly constructed and not have key information (oecd.org). In addition banks may require pertinent information such as credit rating, credit history in order to make well informed decisions. Unfortunately as a start up, an SME might not have this information. Moreover the company may not have kept this information or the companys funds may be intertwined with the owners personal finances, making it difficult to produce this information. Such regulatory constraints make it challenging for SMEs to access financing. The loan application process itself may be too lengthy and complicated such that the SME owner gives up (ITC 2009). SMEs can also be pessimistic about outside investors and would rather keep it in the family. As such they are not open to financing ideas that involve outsiders taking part ownership or control of the companies. This therefore limits their financing options. Possible Advice and Solutions SMEs have several options regarding where and how to access funding. SMEs can access finance through venture capitalists. These are individuals who provide funding to start up companies with exciting ideas that promise high returns and they offer funding to start ups, to businesses that need to achieve a turnaround, that need to expand etc(LOE 2010). However in certain cases venture capitalists may require equity or control in the said business in return. Non- governmental organisations (NGOs) have also devised programmes in order to provide funding for SMEs because of the difficulties of accessing fund in the mainstream. Oikocredit an NGO in Ghana for example offers funding for SMEs (Mensah 2004). USAID Development credit authority also provides funding for SMEs. Governments have also taken interest in this issue and through initiatives such as Small firm loan guarantee scheme in the UK (LOE 2010: 357) and Africa Development Bank, governments help SMEs that lack security to access funds by being the guarantors of a large percentage of the loan. Grants and subsidies are also available for example through the Ministry of SMEs in Zimbabwe. Listings on alternative stock exchanges such as Altx in Johannesburg (RHPS.com) and AIM in the UK allow smaller businesses to list and float shares with less stringent requirements thereby raising equity finance. Wealthy individuals, already successful in business, called business angels (LOE 2010) invest in SMEs through a shareholding to assist start ups or SME expansion plans. This can be in the form of a single individual or a consortium. While they dont get involved in the day to day operations of the business, they do take an active interest. And can be a valuable source of business skills and experience. According to ITC (2009), trade credit (where collateral is not required) and cash advances from customers can be short term source of finance for SMEs.

Media Effects Theory

This is a short discourse on the research of the Media Effects Theories, showing how the new theories or current information that is available currently support old theories such as the cultivation theory, spiral of silence theory, and uses-and-gratifications theories among others. This will begin with a brief discussion on Media Effects Theory and proceed to highlight the current developments in this scholarly field and finally show how these theories support different effects models. The developments in media have accelerated at an enormous rate given the recent advances in technology. New forms of media such as DVD and the internet have changed the way media is delivered to the audience and also the way it is perceived thus raising the question of whether or not the conventional theories on Media Effect are still viable for the current scenario (Berger 1997). To properly understand this, it is important to first delve into the nature of Media Effects Theories. Media Effects Theory. Media Effects theory can be generally defined as the theory that postulates that any level of exposure to representations or depictions of violence in any of various media cause or have the potential to cause increased aggression or violence in the behavior of the audience (Bryant 2002). Media Effects Theories are developed to provide a better understanding and to gain a deeper insight into the effects that media has had with respect to society and also the role that media plays in influencing social and political change (MacQuail 2000). The recent developments in media however have raised new concerns regarding the perspectives and a proliferation of approaches concerning the Media Effects Theory including its research methodology, communications education, and public policy issues (Berger 1997). Given these criticisms of the theories on media effects, it becomes relevant to examine the existing theories and to examine how an application of the current theories and research may help in addressing this concern. Existing Media Effects Theories This section will briefly discuss a few of the more predominant and influential Media Effects Theories today. The first discussion will be on the Hypodermic Needle Model, which is a theory that the influence of media is so powerful that it can be used to â€Å"inject† messages into the minds of the audience and control them (Baran et al 1995). This model was developed by the Marxist Frankfurt School of intellectuals in the 1930s. The current application of this theory today is criticized by many because the Hypodermic Needle Model was mainly a result of the fear and concern that was generated during the practice of political propaganda and psychological warfare during World War I (Baran et al 1995). The second Media Effect Theory that will be discussed is the Empiricist Tradition which as the term suggests employs an application of the methodologies and principles of the natural sciences to attempt to measure the direct effects on audiences that may be attributed to media exposure (Mass Media Effects: A Study 4). Paul Lazarsfeld, an important researcher who contributed much to the development of empirical conducted a study into voting behavior carried out in the 1940s which to the development of the highly influential Two Step Flow Model of mass communication (Bandura 2001). There have been many criticisms with regard to this theory. While early on it was regarded as influential in this field with the theory of the â€Å"Limited Effects†, there have been studies conducted in Europe that show the exact opposite (MacQuail 2000). The current application of this theory now might be made more credible by improving the methodological diversity which scientists and social theorists have criticized (MacQuail 2000). Another influential Media Effect Theory is the Cultural Effects Approach which basically tries to analyze the social, political and cultural effects (MacQuail 2000). The advocates of this approach fall into two (2) categories, the Marxist Approach and the Literary Criticism Approach (Mass Media Effects: A Study 6). While these two (2) views have gained a strong following among many, the most common criticism is that given the technological advances today, there must be a method by which these theorists are able to provide empirical evidence supporting their assertions (Chomsky et al 2002). The other influential perspective is the Uses and Gratification Approach which allows insight into precisely how the â€Å"new† media differ from the â€Å"old† insofar as audiences utilizes these media (Gauntlett 1998). This focuses primarily on how the audience or people in general use the media to gratify their needs. While this approach is still widely used, the problem of different needs and uses particular to a single individual makes the approach unreliable to some. As MacQuail pointed out, â€Å"it's very difficult to connect a particular need with a particular type of media content since media use may be considered to supply at one time or another all the benefits named (57)† Now that it has been shown how these approaches have defined and been applied in Media Effects Theories, an examination of the current theories and research prevailing today must be done. Current Theories and Research As previously mentioned, the recent technological advances have altered the way that media is perceived and received by the audience, allowing for arguably greater effect or influence upon the general public. This section will attempt to discuss how the traditional approaches may utilize the current theories and research available to be able to adapt with the ever changing needs and demands of this field of study. The first critical issue to be discussed is the rising influence of postmodernist thought on the approaches to Media Effects Theory (Fisher et al 2004). The main ideas of this theory rely on the fact that the ideas and perceptions of individuals has already been preconditioned by media in a sense that whatever input or meaning that is derived from media is already placed in a predefined context (MacQuail 2000). This school of thought therefore suggests that in analyzing the behavior and effects the fact that media has already preconditioned the minds of the individuals and influenced the â€Å"reception. Miller 2005)† An approach that is closely linked with this development is the New Audience Research, which focuses primarily on the ethnographic studies of audiences while not totally disregarding the â€Å"theory† aspect of the matter (Fisher et al 2004). This approach uses the reception analysis, which has developed from a combination of traditional qualitative resear ch strategies in sociology with some of the ideas of reader response theory in literary criticism (Mass Media Effects: A Study 8). The important aspect of this approach is ability to confront and properly address the issues concerning the origins and influences of meaning that an individual conceptualizes with regard to the media input that he is exposed to. Another important factor to consider is the cultivation theory, which was primarily concerned with concerned with the â€Å"cumulative and overarching impact it (media) has on the way we see the world in which we live (Miller 2005). † This theory has recently been discussed in the research of James Shanahan and Michael Morgan which tackled the issue of the cultivation theory and television. The main idea of this research revealed that television programming cultivates a mainstream world view that reflects and perpetuates the interests of social and political elites and their stakes in maintaining the status quo (Shanahan and Morgan 2000). This type of analysis reveals the relevance of this approach to the Theories on Media Effects because of the fact that this approach considers the context within which the images presented in media with respect to the changing times and culture (Bandura 2001). While this approach may not be necessarily complete and is not without its criticisms, when combined with the Empirical Tradition, a new method which combines the stronger features of the scientific method and the approach of the cultural method may prove to be credible enough to silence its critics. Application of Media Effects Theories In order to arrive at a more concrete understanding of the issue at hand, it is interesting to apply what has been discussed to a current issue. One of these issues is the effect of media on the moral fiber of today’s youth. This will be discussed in brief to provide an accurate detail of just how these media effects theories can be applied to today’s social problems. As a quick glimpse at the recent events that grace the newspaper’s headlines show, there is indeed a growing concern over the violence that happens in schools all over the country (Chomsky et al 2002). The issue is not limited to the increased teenage pregnancies or even drug abuse. It encompasses a whole range of issues such as bullying and perhaps the most frightening, schools shootings (Chomsky et al 2002). With all of these problems plaguing not only the education system but also the entire nation as of late, the question that comes up is whether or not this is actually caused by the violent television shows and movies in the cable TV programming. While there has been no irrefutable data that lends credence to the theory that violent shows in television is the real culprit behind today’s misguided and often violent youth, there can also be no argument against the statement that though violence on television may not be the sole cause, it is one of the contributory causes (Fisher et al 2004). There are a number of media effects theories that solidify the argument that it is violence in media or in television that has led to the deterioration in the moral foundation of today’s youth (Gauntlett 1998). A good example of this would be the â€Å"Hypodermic Needle Model†, which is a theory that the influence of media is so powerful that it can be used to â€Å"inject† messages into the minds of the audience and control them (Gauntlett 1998). While it is not being suggested that television is being used a medium to brainwash today’s youth and turn them into an army of zombies for the media, it is being proposed, however, that the programming and quality of shows on television, such as violent programs, has a profound effect upon the youth (Shanahan and Morgan 2000). The influence, therefore, that television has upon the youth is undeniable. While this influence may have waned in the advent of the internet age and YouTube, it still bears a considerably large amount of influence over the younger children who are not able to access such media devices (Fisher et al 2004). Therein lays the danger; young children with impressionable minds are exposed to violence on television leading to a deterioration in the moral and ethical foundations of today’s generation. Another interesting theory to correlate the cause, violence in television, with the effect, violent behavior of the youth, is the postmodernist thought on the approaches to the Media Effects Theory (Gauntlett 1998). The main ideas of this theory rely on the fact that the ideas and perceptions of individuals has already been preconditioned by media in a sense that whatever input or meaning that is derived from media is already placed in a predefined context (Fisher et al 2004). This school of thought therefore suggests that in analyzing the behavior and effects the fact that media has already preconditioned the minds of the individuals and influenced the reception (Shanahan and Morgan 2000). As such, given the volatile nature of the mind of a child, the input that a child receives from violent programming on the television creates a preconceived notion of what the real world is like. By showing violence on television, a child may think and perceive that such behavior is actually socially acceptable (Fisher et al 2004). Studies have shown that there have been causal links found between aggressive and violent behavior in children and the type of television programs that these children generally watch. This can also be applied to the infamous Columbine shooting wherein the investigators have theorized that the motivation for the shooters may have been influenced by forms of media (Fisher et al 2004). As stated in one of the reports, â€Å"Among the many theories that have surfaced regarding the motivation for this incident the most prevalent one remains the effect that media has on the minds of today’s youth. (Fisher et al 2004) While there are those who theorize that it was the fact that the shooters were isolated from the rest of their classmates thus prompting feelings of helplessness, insecurity and depression, as well as cultivating a strong desire for attention, the attention has been focused on the effect violent video games such as Doom, which the shooters frequently played, and rock m usic such as Rammstein. Every day the world searches for answers for many of the would-be â€Å"avoidable† tragedies such as school shootings, gang wars and juvenile teen violence. The reason for the term â€Å"avoidable† stems from the fact that many consider these as effects of media influences and morally condemnable social behavior (Fisher et al 2004). While media and television, in particular, are not the main causes for these tragedies, it cannot be denied that they have contributed to these problems (Fisher et al 2004). There may not be an easy solution for this but by identifying the causes that have led to this dilemma a big step has been taken to rectify this situation and to prevent more disasters such as this from ever happening again. Conclusion From this discussion, it is apparent that the application of these Media Effects theories is versatile to say the least. There are a number of social phenomena that occur in today’s world that can be partly explained by these theories. Events such as the impact of media on today’s youth, school violence, teen drug abuse and even consumer patterns are all within the ambit of these media effects theories. It is interesting to note, however, that while suitable media effects theories are present in this discussion, the field of media studies is constantly evolving. The introduction and use of new technology that aids in the proliferation and dissemination of media could prove to challenge many of these conventional theories if not alter them. Other future concerns in this area would also have to deal with the present legislative stance on certain forms of media and their content. It remains to be seen in the future just how these events will change the understanding and function of media in present day society. There will always be debate concerning the correct approach to Media Effect. Certain schools of thought will always insist on the application of a more totalitarian perspective that incorporates unquantifiable characteristics or effects while others will insist on an empiricists approach and the application of the principles and information that the natural sciences provide. The key to resolving this issue may very well lie in which school of thought is regarded as authoritative or persuasive enough to convince the other of the credibility and validity of their findings. While this may not seem possible, events in the past have shown that even for brief moments a single school of thought or approach was held in high regard (see Empiricist Tradition). The use of these current theories on the approaches to Media Effects Theories may however be the final factor which determines what school of thought or media model will prevail. The way these current researches have incorporated the key aspects of the technological development in media as well as the way that they have addressed the previous concerns or criticisms regarding the traditional approaches makes them a valuable tool indeed in providing a deeper understanding of human nature and the relationship that it has to media.